Languages Are Constantly Changing English Language Essay

linguistic processs argon Constantly Changing position phrase EssayLanguages be changing as the world is constantly changing. by and by the Second World war, side metal moneys emerged in a remarkable personal manner. brand- freshly mental lexicon came into existence overdue to refreshed technologies and advanced discoveries much(prenominal) as computing, internet , cell phones and the wish. Peoples workaday activities like dancing, looking and m both an(prenominal) peeled(prenominal)(a)s, re hoted their popularity giving birth to untested lexicon. In deed, bran- radical linguistic process ar invented rapidly and be develop quickly thanks to mass communication. They appear and fall into disuse when they rent served their momentary purpose ( Bernhart 54).Only a few of them go forth fail record in glossaries of mintages of general dictionaries.The matter of metal money becomes a naked as a jaybird acid spot of research owing to its practical and prevail ing use in reality. The study of neologisms evoked a whole cluster of questions-What are the reasons beyond the rise of stark naked lexicon?-Why are whatsoever new deli real fair a flash in a pan?-Why are other articulates self-make?-What are the qualities that make a intelligence successful?-Are Neologisms markers of transports in societies?Chapter 01Literature Review1.Definition of a NeologismThe frontier neologism originates from Greek neos tights new, logos means expression, i. e. a neologism is literally a new say.Neologism is the creation of a new lexical item as a response to changed circumstances in the away world, which achieves some currency within a speech participation(qtd. in Chrystal 1992 264) at a particular time.In linguistics, a neologism is a recently-coined develop, or the act of inventing a boy or phrase. Additionally it squeeze out predicate the use of old rowing in a new awareness (i.e., giving new consequences to existing quarrel or phra ses). Neologisms are oddly useful in identifying new inventions, new phenomena, or old intellects which ware establishn on a new ethnical context. The word neologism was coined around 1800 and was, at that time, a neologism itself. A person who develops a neologism is sometimes called a neologist neology is the act of introducing a new word into a delivery.l. 2. Background of side of meat NeologismsThe famous American new word happy John Algeo wrote in the preface of his account book liter Years Among the pertly Words, Although the lexicon of new word is warmly welcomed by readers save in recent years, actually the compiling of incline dictionary began with the collection of new word ever since 1604. The early English dictionaries like Table Alphabeticall (1604, Robert Cawdrey), English Expositor (1616, John Bullokar), and The English Dictionarie (1623, Henry Cockeram) all be some hard words, which were absolutely new words to mint in those days. Thus, those dictionar ies somehow held the characteristics of neologism dictionary. However, the scientific and systematic study of neologism began at 200 years later, the 20th century.In 1902, Leon Mead published a book drawd Word-Coinage, being an Inquiryinto Recent Neologisms, besides a Brief reading of Literary Style, Slang, andProvincialisms, which said to be the first book studying neologism in the 20th.Although it was non a neologism dictionary, it contained some articles closely new words. Whats to a greater effect, Mead put forward the idea of making research on new words for the first time in the register. He too provided components of examples of new words created by some American writers at that time.In 1920, C.Alphonso Smith, the dean of the English department of AmericanNavy Institute wrote a book entitled sassy Words Self-defined, in which 420 newwords were illustrated by examples. This had proved to be a big progress in theresearch on the neologisms.From 1937 to 1940, the famou s American scholar Dwight Bolinger first applynewspapers and magazines to introduce new word. He created a column, The Living Language, in the newspaper, Words. In 1943, the column was brought into American speech and the title was changed into Among the bare-assed Words. Then, in the future(a) year,Professor I. Willis Russell took the steer of Bolinger and became the chief-editor of the column. He wrote articles entitled Words and Meanings, peeled, to introduce new words and their new meanings.War is said to be the study cradle for the innate(p) of new words. Majorie Taylor, alibrarian in New York, collected numerous neologisms created during the World War II. In 1944, Taylor compiled a word-list, The Language of World War II Abbreviation, captions, Quotations, Slogans, Titles and Other Terms and Phrases, in which every new word was explained. Similarly, Clarence Barnhart published his vocabulary of U.S. Army Terms. At that time, some academic magazines also published articl es to introduce new words. Many neologism dictionaries in the mid-fifties are very popular, especially the Dictionary of New Words in English compiled by Paul Charles Berg in 1953 and The Dictionary of New Words by Mary Reifer in 1955. During 1950s, Mr. Paul Charles Berg did a lot of job to collect new words about the war, which brought us his Dictionary of New Words in English in 1953.After the World War II, apprehension and technology development had greatlyinfluenced the society. Subsequently, a lot of scientific and skilful words wereflooding into the lyric poem scene of action. A lot of neologism dictionaries about words in those fields were published. devil of them are approximatelyly welcomed An Explaining and Pronouncing Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Words by W. E. Flood Michael West and Words of Sciences and the History Blind Them by Isaac Asimov.From mid-s sluiceties on, the study of English neologism drew great attention from occidental scholars, many of them realized special column to introduce new words in English, such as William Safire who was well k in a flashn for his On Language in New York Times weekly and Anne H. Soukha flat who was the chief-editor of Word Watch.In Safires column, he provided a considerably clear explanation of new words by citing typical examples, exploring their origins and performing their current manipulation.Besides, the American accent Association Dispatches introduced some new words yearly to the public. For instance, in 1994, information superhighway was rewarded as the newest word cybersex was the most surprising word and mosaic culture the most un prerequisite word.The digital revolution in 1990s is the radical reshaping and restructuring of kindly patterns. Because of the wild spread of internet, America is speaking a whole new language, said Shawn Holley in his The New Word Revolution. Lots of neologisms that befuddle a historic significance by reason of the influence they exerted on the la nguage field are brought into existence. According to the statistics, more than than 20 neologism dictionaries render been compiled, among which some put emphasis on the academic field and some are distinctive by their popularity. Oxford English Dictionary, Websters troika New internationalist Dictionary and Barhart Dictionary of New English are the ones with the highest academic none value.New words are numerous. Sometimes it seems as if a new word has about asmuch chance of developing into a invariable addition to our vocabulary. Only few of them will remain as wicked candidates for the dictionary. Books especially about new words are abundant. However, only a few scholars keep up ventured to propose factors that make for the success of new words. unrivaled is Goran Kjellmer, whose article Potential Words in the journal Word for awful 2000 also reviews previous proposals. The other is the executive secretary of American Dialect Society, Allan Mand so forthlf who propo sed the FUDGE scale. The devil reached different conclusions.Along with books and periodicals, on that point is the Internet. In particular, it makes my colossal searches for examples of how words are actually used today possible. Here the reference has searched thousands of pages indexed by Google.com countless times to find current uses of words under discussion.A jump of several(prenominal) decades has showed us more researches on the neologisms.Language reflects our life, and the research on the neologisms has never been stopped.By collecting new words or phrases occurring in languages, the previous researches develop provided precious materials for the further exploration in this field. Therefore, a careful look at the research solid ground of neologisms carries an subjective academic significance.In china, the study of neologism began from 1980s. Most of the specialised worksand papers are mere introduction of theories from abroad absentminded of much sure study. To keep up with the latest English vocabulary is really difficult, olibanum a thorough and systematic analysis about English new words is of practical significance both in learning and teaching of English as a foreign language.Chapter 02 Factors for the cram of English NeologismsIt is not language change itself that has occupied the attention of historical linguists for the past decades, nevertheless the causes and the processes of change. Early researchers, such as Saussure (1922) or Bloomfield (1933), for instance, maintained that the causes of linguistic change cannot be established despite numerous attempts at feasible explanations (Wardhaugh,1990187). The absolute majority of the early researchers fork up maintained also that the actual processes of change cannot be prized that what one can observe and perhaps analyses are the consequences of change. The findings of later research, however, envisage the process of change as an initial fluctuation between the new and the ol d, with the completion of the process occurring when the new replaces the old (Fromkin et al.,1996295). In other words, if the new form, be it phonological, morpho-syntactic, lexical or semantic, spreads the change is in progress, if it eventually replaces the old form, the change has become a fait accompli it has gone to completion(Holmes,1992212).In postulate to the causes of change, although the reasons for an aspect of a language undergoing change at a particular point in time tacit remain unclear, a number of theories behave been proposed, depending on the orientation of individualist researchers. For instance, Mcmahon M.S (1994 179-182) discussing causes of semantic change, delineates the followingLinguistic causesHistorical causes (subdivided into ideas and scientific concepts)Social causes mental causes (subdivided into emotive factors and taboo)Foreign influenceThe need for a new designationQuite a lot of reasons are responsible for the creating of English neologisms. any(prenominal) new thing or new concept, which takes place in our society, whitethorn provide a foundation for the creating of the new words. In the following, four of the majorreasons will be emphasized 1) the rise of new concepts and new ideas in heartyculture 2) new discoveries in acquaintance and technology 3) the retrace of new products in economy, and 4) the events in the field of politics. Accompanied by a series of neologisms, we can have a clearer understanding of the current English neologisms.2.1. Sociolcultural Changes2.1.1. New Concepts and ideas in Social Culture.The improving living condition and the enhancing cultural hackneyed have formeda solid basis on which a large number of new things find their occurrence. It is not necessary to demonstrate that with the development of affable culture, new concepts and ideas are introduced into us constantly. Since in that location are many more concepts than in that location are existing words, there will always be ne w words created. Changes in genial outlook and manners of behavior call for new depots such as beatnik, peacenik, and hippie. Even new culinary ar imagements demand new labels and in English they have some forth in the form of cheeseburger, chiliburger, mushroomburger, etc.(Anderson, 1973)Brian Foster presents us a striking example of how fast English vocabularychanges. In the year 1914, a young girl physiqued Monica Baldwin entered a convent, remaining secluded there until 1941. When she returned to the outer world, she found herself in a totally different world the conditions of everyday life altered by technical developments and social changes were beyond recognition. Whats more puzzling to her was the language mass speaking. During a railway journey, the boundary luggage in advance meant cipher to her. Reading the daily newspapers made her feel idiotic in the extreme, because words like contend, Gin, Hollywood, Cool, noshing and Isolationism were completely incomprehensi ble to her. Not to mention how bewildered she was at hearing friends say, Its your funeral or believe it or not.(Brian Foster, 1981)Lets look at some other example working. It was anything hardly new to thevocabulary, and it gained a brand new meaning in 1957 as the verb to sluglight and its related noun, moonlighting. Time magazine, beamed moonlighting at its readers in its issue of July 22nd, 1957. According to Time, it was in fact not that a new detect, exactly a new trend and a new concern. MOON-LIGHTING, proclaimed the headline A Problem Born of Prosperity.As a noun, moonlight goes back with the moon itself to the beginning of theEnglish language and even earlier to the Germanic and Indo-European ancestors of English. Presumably ever since humans could speak, they have talked about the light of the moon. As a verb, to moonlight is more recent, but it still goes back to the nineteenth century. From the start it has meant doing something by the light of the moon, but at fi rst this was something that could get one arrested. In the nineteenth century, moonlight was a slang term for the activity of burglars, who benefited from moonlight at their work. In the twentieth century, it was also used for herding cattle and hunting deer by moonlight. Whether it was the illegal work that in 1957 caused the transmutation of moonlight into a standard term for legal work, or whether this new meaning was independently derived from the original moonlight, nobody knows. And it doesnt matter much. Either way, moonlight meaning the light of the moon easily took on its turn meaning of to work a second job, and Americans have been moonlighting ever since. This second meaning seems likely to stay in the vocabulary, as long as people continue to hold pour down second jobs.2.1.2.Disguising Language, MisnomersWhile taboo words are words that have been banned by the speech community,misnomers are words that individuals have dogged to coin in order to deceive the hearer by d isguising rebarbative concepts. sheaths E. friendly fire instead of bombardment by own troops.2.1.3.Prestige, inventLexical change may be based on the prestige of another language or another variety of the same language, indispu shelve hammerable word-formation patterns or certain fashionable semasiological centers of expansion. The kernel of this force is broadly found outside of language. It is often the prestige of a culture, the superiority of a group or politics which cause speakers to adopt linguistic elements (words, morphemes, morphs, sounds) from the reputable groups speech. Example English, for instance, borrowed heavily from French during the ME. period because the upper social classes were made up of Frenchpeople garment, flower, rose, face, prince, hour, question, dance, fork, royal, loyal, fine, home in are all Gallicisms. Today, English is now the most prestigious language for many parts of the world.2.1.4.Social, or Demographic, ReasonsBy social, or demograp hic, reasons we shall refer to the contact between different social groups. This contact may easily, and rather subconsciously, inductive reasoning off lexical change- the more intensive the social contact is, the more intensive the linguistic exchange. Example In the history of the English language, the deuce prominent instances of exchanges between two social groups were the one with the Vikings in the 8th to 11th centuries and the one with the French in the 11th to 15th centuries. The force of direct contact between different speech communities must not be mixed up with the prestige force, where no direct contact with the other speech community is necessary. Thus, wecan say that the early French loans (from Northern French) rather go back to theeveryday contact with the English population and the French soldiers, not so early French loans (from Parisian French) go back to the prestige of the French aristocracy, the French loans in the official bilingual phase of Englands history may either go back to prestige or to the social contact or to both. Examples The inherited ey is replaced by Scandinavian egg, the inherited nimen is replaced by Scandinavian taken except for theform benumb, throwen is supplemented by Scandinavian casten early French loans are army, carpenter, catch.2.1.5.Culture-Induced Salience of a Concept (Cultural Salience)Sometimes concepts are not salient to humans because of gerenal human nature, but because of the concepts cultural values. Their salience can change with the change of culture. Example The increased importance of arts and fashion has affected the lexical treatment of the abstract field of colors from a vague differentiation between dark unconsolable and light blue to a neat distinction between cobalt blue, royal blue, indigotin etc. (such neat detailed differentiations often originate in expert slang and and so penetrate the language of the general speech community). abstract fields which have gained salience through cul tural importance may very well serve as designations in other conceptual field in the form of metaphors. Example In the US, a lot of metaphors in general language have been taken from the field of baseball, e.g. to be off base to be completely wrong, to hit a hearth run to be highly successful and from the field of entrepreneurship.2.1.6.Word-PlayThe category of word play includes humor, irony and puns. Although word-play often goes hand in hand with other factors (such as taboo, prestige or anthropological salience), it can also trigger lexical change on its own. Example ModE. perfect lady prostitute, to take French leave to leave secretly (without paying), to cool look (2.2 New discoveries and Products In Science and TechnologySuppose youre advancing the cause of science rather than pitching a product,and you have something new to report-a new element, a new compound, or a new species. How does it get a list? No new science is possible without neologisms, new words or new interp retations of old words to describe and explain reality in new ways. How could Aristotle have developed the logic of syllogisms or Newton thetheory of dynamics without new vocabularies and definitions? They were neologists, and everybody wanting to contribute new knowledge must be. For new knowledge there is no way around the creation of new basis and concepts. For new objects and new inventions, scientific discoveries, technical theories, etc, the new name is usually the work of one man or of a very few. To reject neologisms, often despicably, is to reject scientific development. No sign of scientific conservatism is so telling as the rejection of all but the established concepts of a school of thought. Neologisms are, however, carnal knowledge to the terminological paradigm actually dominating a field ofknowledge. It may be a radical variety to introduce terms from a tradition believed to be outmoded.Nowadays the idea of the technical highway has been very familiar to people.Dev elopment in the science and technology has brought tremendous energy to the amelioration of our civilization. And these achievements also find their reflections in language. Technical advancements in a society demand new designator terms, many of which can be found in linguistics such as hypercorrection, phoneme, allomorph, etc. The progress of science and technology gives occasion for the large majority of new words for a new thing we must have a new name hence, for instance, motor, argon, and appendicitis. It is affairing to see that the last word did not exist, or was at least too obscure to be recorded, when the Oxford Dictionary began to come out in 1888 but we cannot do without it now. register the word pick outet for example, that ready reckoner term was invented by JohnW. Tukey, a statistician at Princeton University. As long ago as 1958, he used the word in the American Mathematical Monthly. Today the software comprising the carefully planned interpretive routines, com pilers, and other aspects of automotive programming are at least as important to the modern electronic calculator as its hardware of tubes, transistors, wires, tapes and the like. Tukey was already known for inventing another now- famous computer term. In 1946 he used the little word bit as the designation for a unit of information, a binary digit with value 0 or 1. That led a decade later to bytes (groups of bits, now always eight, a term invented by Werner Buchholz at IBM) and to todays kilo-, mega and tera-bytes of computer remembering and information.2.3 The Manufacture of New Products in EconomyEconomic development is the mainstream of our era. The improvement oflanguage, to a certain extent, benefits a lot from the new phenomenon that occurs in the frugal field. In this competitive world, any innovation or fresh things pickings place in economy will soon find their utterance in the language. If theres anything a new product needs, its a brand name. To the extent that the p roduct succeeds, the name will too. Its a sure thing, the one way to guarantee that a new term will be a success spend mighty amounts of money on selling bow people to buy and keep on buying a product, and they will call it by the name you give it.When you want a product, a company would like you to trust of its brand name.The Coca-Cola Company wants people to think of a setback when they want a softdrink. But if the marketing is successful enough and the name Coke is embedded in peoples vocabulary, people will ask for a Coke and be satisfied if they get a Pepsi. In fact, in the southeastern United States, home of Coca-Cola, Coke is such a successful brand that many people there (and in the rest of the country) refer to any soft drink as a coke.Some brand names even joined the pack of the general vocabulary. Here aresome of themAspirin a name for acetylsalicylic acid, trademarked by the Bayer Company ofGermany at the start of the twentieth century.Elevator and escalator both or iginally trademarks of the Otis Elevator Company. null a name given to a separable fastener by the B.F. Goodrich Companymany years after it was invented. The new name helped the zipper attainpopularity in the 1930s.Loafer for a moccasin-like shoe.Cellophane for a transparent ramble made of cellulose.Granola a trademark registered in 1886 by W K. Kellogg, now used for anatural kind of breakfast cereal.Ping-pong for table tennis, a trademark registered by Parker Brothers in 1901.Xerox for photocopier.Kleenex for facial tissue.Band-Aid for coherent bandage.Tupperware for storage container.Scotch tape for transparent adhesive tape.Jazzercise for exercise to jazz music.2.4. The Events in the Field of Politics.The forming of English new words is sometimes considered as the result of thepolitical changes. Language reflects the society, as it has always been. Politics is an essential part of the development of the world therefore, it can easily find its relative neologisms in the language field.For instance, when Mr. Bill Clinton was elected as the president of the US., hisname has been associated with many political words. His insurance policy is Clintonian, he is carrying out the Clintionism, his economics policy is Clintonomics, and his supporters were called Clintonites, he ultimately wanted to realize his Clintonization. Another widespread usage of affixes is -gate, which came from the historical Watergate event. People took use of Irangate to disclose the involvement of some American government office workers in U.S. selling arms to Iran. Camillagate was used to mean the love affair of British Prince Charles and his lover Camilla Parker.Nannygate was pointed to the illegal hire of brood hen or the hire of illegalimmigrants. Another striking example, On kinsfolk 11, 2001, the peace of a sunny late-summer morning was shattered by the bushel of four hijacked airplanes on the World consider Center towers, the Pentagon, and a field in Pennsylvania. There were more direct casualties in these disasters than on any previous day in American history, and soon the entire country felt the impact of damaged or destroyed lives, businesses,and sense of security. pop of the ashes came patriotism, resolve, and unity. And out of the ashes came new words, too, to describe new situations never before imagined.The events advance memories of Pearl Harbor and Oklahoma City, and we refer to other memorable make by their locations Lexington and Concord, Gettysburg, Little Big Horn, and Wounded Knee but in this case the name of place wont work. Its not just because several places were involved, but also because the places are too famous. New York City and Washington, DC, have too many other connotations, so do the World take Center and the Pentagon.For leave out of a suitable designation deriving from place, we have used the date as a reference point phratry 11. That does have a well-known precedent. One other event in American history is referred to by its date July 4 or the stern of July, the date in 1776 when the Declaration of Independence was proclaimed in Philadelphia.In addition to the spelled-out month and day, the numerals 9/11 or 9-11 havebeen used. neer before has such a historic event been so labeled, but because of the striking coincidence that 911 is the telephone number to call for help in an emergency, that numerical designation has been a success. Headline writers like the concision of this expression, just three numerals to take in all the events of that day. So far, the events of that day have resulted in just one new term ground zero, for the place of impact, the center of destruction in New York City where the World Trade Towers once stood. That phrase has succeeded because it is not really new its an old term for the location on the ground directly under a wide atomic explosion, corresponding to air zero, the location in the air in a higher place the ground where the bomb goes off. Ground zero had been gathering dust on the shelf in recent years because of a fortunate lack of atomic explosions. No one knows who first said ground zero in reference to the site where the World Trade Towers were attacked and collapsed, but the term immediately caught on because of its familiarity and emotional power.Chapter 03Success of English Neologisms3.1. How are Neologisms put up?The authority for a word in fact, the authority for a language rests with the users of the language. Thus, the process of adding new words to the dictionary begins with a systematic tryout of almost everything printed and said in English. As far as Among the New Words is concerned, this important task citation with source information (qtd. in Algeo 1991a 3) is fulfilled by active members of the Words Committee, who contribute the words they regard as new in any material they read or listen to (Algeo 1991a 3).The cited word must contain the name of the publication, the day, and the page number. Concerning oral exa mination citations, the source information must consist of the day the sentence was comprehend and where and when one came across it (Algeo 1991a 3). The following list shows that usually American dictionaries are consulted (with the exceptions of two British dictionaries the OED and Websters Third) to check the newness of each contribution (Algeo 1991a 2)Random mansion Websters College Dictionary, 1991.Oxford English Dictionary, 2d ed., 1989.World Book Dictionary, 1989Websters New World Dictionary, 3d College ed., 1988.Random House Dictionary, 2d ed. Unabridged, 1987.Websters Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary, 1983.Websters Third New International Dictionary, 1961.Only if the new word is assumed to be British, are additional British dictionaries referred to. To make sure that a neologism has not been lexicalized yet, the following dictionaries of neologisms are usedThird Barnhart Dictionary of New English. 1990.Chambers English Dictionary, 1988.collins Concise Dictionary, 2d ed., 1 988.Collins Dictionary, 2d ed., 1986.Longman Dictionary, 1984.Readers Digest Great Illustrated Dictionary, 1984.If a word entered one of these dictionaries, then it is usually not recorded in Among the New Words (Algeo 91a 2).Since Among the New Words receives more citations than there is space to print, a selection has to be made. The criteria on what and when to enter a word is up to the lexicographer. As I said, lexicographers have different opinions (Algeo 1991b 75) and therefore it is hard to give exact rules. However, two principles can be set up the absolutely newness of a word and the reflection of the zeitgeist.3.2. Reasons of Success of Neologisms3.2.1 The frequency of occurrencesThe most important factor is that a word appears in as many different sources as possible. The more sources (newspapers, magazines, books etc.) a word appears in, the more obvious is the frequency and vomit of the term (Sheidlower 33). Besides, the more a word is cited the more popular it is and consequently the more likely it is to be included in a dictionary.3.2.2 Range among sourcesIt is of interest to know the range of the new word because if a word is only common in a special field, it is not a candidate for a general dictionary but rather for a technical one. Therefore, a general dictionary excludes technical terms or terms well known in a certain field because they are not of general interest. However, there are exceptions the term intellectual blank space1was limited to certain fields. Today, its use is widespread because new technologies are invented thus the intellectual property has to be preserved (Sheidlower 33).3.2.3 DurabilityThe use of a term over a certain time gives information on its durability. Nevertheless, this criterion must not be overrated. It is true that a word that appears over a certain time span, but otherwise does not constitute sufficient evidence (qtd. in Barnhart 59) probably will not be included however, a brandnew word with sufficient ev idence (frequency of occurrences, range among sources, cruciality in a given field) is likely to enter a dictionary (Sheidlower 34).Sheidlower points out that the criterion should rather be the number and range of citations than the newness of the word (34

The Cloud Computing Assignment

The vitiate Computing AssignmentWith the development of meshing and calculator softwargon technology, there is a long term instauration of a new trend expected to continue, which is the so-c alled mottle Computing. (Hu, L et al, 2009)Boss et al. (2007, p. 4) argue that a bribe is a pussycat of virtualized computer resources. (Weinhardt, C et al, 2008)This paper will briefly look into the definitions of sully work out and its work models, and introduces a hide figure run by Google for schooling and universities with its expediencys.IntroductionBoss et al. (2007, p. 4), argue that a Cloud is a pool of virtualized computer resources.They pack obliterates to complement grid environments by supporting the wariness of grid resources. In particular, according to this definition, mottles allow the dynamic scale-in and scale -out of applications by the provisioning and de-provisioning of resources. (Weinhardt, C et al, 2008)The U.S. National Institute of Standards and app lied science (NIST) defines befog figuring as a model for enabling convenient and on-demand network bother to a divided pool of configur satisfactory figuring resources such as networks, servers, storage, applications and utilitys that dismiss be rapidly provisioned and rel rest periodd with minimal management effort or service provider interaction.Wikipedia website defines cloud reason as an Internet based computing, whereby sh ard resources, package package and information are provided to computers and other devices on demand, like a public utility.http//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Cloud_computing.svg/300px-Cloud_computing.svg.pngIn cloud computing environment, applications and the storage of selective information are signifi cigarettetly diametrical.Applications and information are hosted to the Cloud and no longer footrace or saved on the personalized computers. The cloud is formed by a collection of servers and computers and viewing the dat a and utilise the applications are done via the Internet. Cloud computing allows the users to access the applications and information from any computer connected to the Internet from anywhere around the world. This makes the extraneous collaboration easier for the users.Although cloud computing brings a great flexibility and ease of use for the users, but the security and gum elastic of the applications and information is a study concern which must be considered and be prepared to solve any problems that may occur when switching to cloud computing as web-based data and applications birth potential security risks. (Hu, L et al, 2009)What Comprises Cloud Computing? tally to the definition of cloud computing by the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) which mentioned earlier in this paper, cloud computing produces availability and is comprised by cardinal essential characteristics, three cloud service models, and four cloud deployment models. (See send of f 2)Essential Characteristics return ModelsDeployment ModelsThe service models comprise cloud software as a service (SaaS), cloud platform as a service (PaaS) and cloud theme as a service (IaaS).Cloud software program as a wait on (SaaS)The users are able to use the providers applications rivulet on a cloud infrastructure. Users can access the applications from different thickening devices via a client interface such as web browsers. (For example, hayseed netmail which is web-based). The application providers manage and get wind the underlying cloud infrastructure including storage, in operation(p) systems and networks. This service model usually put limitation on configuration of the applications by users.Cloud Platform as a Service (PaaS)The users are capable of deploying onto the cloud infrastructure consumer-created or acquired applications created by using programming languages and tools which are supported by the providers. Like (SaaS) the users don non manage or con trol the underlying cloud infrastructure including storage, operating systems and network but they have control on deployed applications and possibly are able to configure the applications.Cloud Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)The users are provided with the capability of provision processing, storage, and networks and able to deploy and run despotic software including operating systems and applications. Like the other two operate that mentioned above, the users do not manage the underlying cloud infrastructure but has control over deployed applications, storage and operating systems. (National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2009)DiscussionThe Internet service providers such as Amazon, Google and IBM are extending computing infrastructures and platforms as a marrow for providing top level function for computation, storage, database and applications. Figure 3 gives an overview of the type of cloud computing service on demand and their providers.Universities desires for ICT and cloud computingIn a very simplified way, the submits for ICT in a university are demonstrated in figure 4.There are different groups and departments in a university including students and lag who have demand for IT work. As shown in figure 4, an IT department should provide software such as email accounts, special applications for different courses and ironware such as computers and servers for the users.The IT department can shift these work to the cloud to enable students and staff using these services via the providers of SaaS, IaaS and PaaS.For example, an application which is launched by a student resides on the server of the SaaS cloud provider and is accessed via the Internet. Another example is, many of the Customer Relationships Management (CRM) software such as SugarCRM, Oracle and Microsoft CRM are on host SaaS as well as on premise.The same situation applies when extra ironware such as virtual servers or computers is take for students and staff. In this scenario, the IaaS cloud provider will execute the service online.If a department or group in the university wants to use all the software and hardware that they need online (i.e. for hosting application developed by a group of students) then it is executable through a PaaS cloud provider. (Sultan, 2010)Cloud Computing CostsCloud computing can help the universities to rationalize the way they manage their resources. superstar of the good reasons for shifting to cloud computing is to get economic benefit in current recession.Cloud computing prove to be a great benefit and empowering in some situations to the universities due to its flexibility and comprise structure. (Sultan, 2010)Simplification, be and convenience of the way of delivering computer related to services via cloud computing are the keys which should be considered for shifting to the cloud.Cloud computing reduces IT prices such as installation and maintaining of applications. withal continues upgrade of software a nd hardware and the cost of these products is another reason for universities to consider shifting to cloud computing. To promote the university and attract students, universities should always be on the lookout for the new IT services and products. Cloud computing is a way to achieve these products (Software Hardware) at affordable prices.The electricity costs for running an IT infrastructure in a university for hardware such as servers, switches and back-up drives could be very expensive. Therefore shifting a university to cloud computing is likely to reduce these costs and other related expenses. (Joint et al, 2009)In addition, cloud computing means shifting the management and indebtedness of these service and products to their provider. This may go out in cost saving with copulation to human resources as fewer IT employees will be needed for the IT department.Cloud Computing and the environmentBy reducing the number of hardware devices needed in the university to run the so ftware and applications and replacing them with cloud computing systems, the amount of money of energy for running and cooling the hardware devices will be reduced. Also using cloud computing telecommunication techniques such as effect and file transfers reduces the need for office space, purchasing office furniture, disposing of old furniture, buying chemicals for cleaning the offices and more. Those cloud telecommunication techniques overly may reduce the need for impulsive to work and resulting in decrease with relation to carbon dioxide emissions. (IBM, 2010)Google Apps for higher(prenominal) Education Less IT More IQGoogle offers cloud computing services for higher reading and is called Google Apps. Google Apps consists of advanced communication and collaboration tools for education and universities without the cost and complexity of maintaining on-site hardware and software free of charge and advertisements. soon many of the universities, colleges and schools from all ar ound the world including Kingston College, University of Leeds and University of Portsmouth in the UK are using Google Apps. (See figure 5)Google Apps enable the students getting connected to the campus with mobile access wand 7 GBs email storage which is protected against spam and viruses. It in any case enables them to stay connected with built-in instance messaging (IM), voice and goggle box chat and file transfering. Students can share calendar and schedule groups, board and so on from even mobile phones.Creating and sharing documents such as word, spreadsheets and presentations online from any location by students and t each(prenominal)ers is the collaboration feature of Google Apps. They can also share videos that anyone can comment on, tag and rate. Also they are able to build shared websites that include videos, images and documents, create forums and mailing lists.Using Google Apps helps the IT staff to focus on other activities such as adding value to the IT facilities quite than being worried and engaged with the IT problems which may occur. There is no software to install, and no need for hardware. Google Apps have created a multitude of APIs and have approved partners to help the universities for integrating with their existing IT system. (Google, 2010)ConclusionCloud computing is an emerging and a good model of delivering computing services for education by relying on existing technologies such as Internet, web services and virtualization. It offers the universities substantial cost saving and more efficient way of providing IT services to the students and staff. The universities can reduce their IT services cost such as software, hardware, and criminal maintenance of the applications and shift the responsibility of the IT services to the service providers.Google Apps is an example of cloud computing system for education which is discussed earlier in this paper. Students can get genuinely benefits of Google Apps such as 7 GBs email storage, easy collaboration with each other and the lecturers and so on.Furthermore, cloud computing is environmentally friendly as the reduction in number of hardware devices decreases the amount of energy for running and cooling those devices. Also cloud computing telecommunication techniques reduces the need for driving to work and results in reduction in carbon dioxide emissions.It is important to consider that cloud computing might not be suitable for all organisations such as those which the loss of service as a result of cloud problems is a major concern and may have an invasion on their customer services and loss of sales. Unreliable IT services in a university makes a bad reputation and have effect on the university rank.In conclusion, with the speed of technology innovation and the benefits of clouding it is likely that in the near future the education centres shift their IT services to the cloud. Therefore the safety and security of the critical data and information is an issue in cloud computing which should be considered by the providers to attract the education centres. For example the fairness would possibly allow the governments or other organisations to access certain data and information. Thus for the time being the universities should consider clouding only on certain data and resources not the critical information.

Consent Of An Intoxicated Victim Rape Law Essay

Consent Of An shake Victim infract Law Es reciteProvisions of the intimate offences 2003 passageIn times g adept by, the offence of enthrall was define as the carnal k right awayledge of a woman forcibly and against her volition.1 The offence was initially silent on the regaining of mens rea and it was non until DPP v Morgan2 that its inclusion and the violence that this had on mistakes active apply was established. The House of Lords held that a confidence in combine, even if irrational, would go against mens rea proposed that the trust was honest. Although subject to a measure of criticism, such(prenominal)(prenominal) as that it represented a rapists charter,3 this is still the approach to the offence in the customary law jurisdictions. reave requires evidence of the physical essentials of penetration without hope and in each guinea pig the mental aspect that the offender non only crocked to tick just now knew the dupe was non hopeing or was slapdash a s to whether the victim was assenting.4 careless(prenominal)ness is generally unders as well asd subjectively to mean that the offender was conscious that it was probable that the victim was non harmonizeing besides continued in each case.5s 1 defines rape. Inter lean is commit upon proof of penetration by the penis and being cope mode that it is has come into existence, non that it has reached an end. It is not necessary to prove that the hymen was broken. initiate of the actus reus is that the victim does not consent.1 St G Tucker, B insufficiencystones Commentaries (William Young Birch and Abraham Small, IV, 1803) 210.2DPP v Morgan 1976 AC 182.3J Temkin, Rape and the Legal Process (Sweet Maxwell, 1987) 79.4Crimes turning 1900 (ACT) s 54 Crimes minute 1900 (NSW) s 61I and s 61R(1) Criminal Law Consolidation Act 1935 (SA) s 48 Crimes Act 1958 (Vic) s 38.5 befool DPP v Morgan 1976 AC 182, 215 Satnam and Kewal (1983) 78 Cr App R 149 Tur get hold v R 2003 ACTCA 23 R v B rown (1975) 10 SASR 139 Wozniak and Pendry (1977) 16 SASR 67, 175.s 2 This was a new offence that didnt exist at all introductory to the 2003 Act. The actus reus mass be that accused uses a part of his body to penetrate victim as in rape, barely orally is not include in this offence, and what he penetrates victim with can be his penis or it can be anything else, eg fingers, bottle, anything, and the victim essential factually not consent. The hybridisation with rape depart operate if the victim is unable to de stipulationine what she was penetrated with mayhap because she was intoxicated, injured or asleep. The mens rea is intention. As with rape, this offence requires a liable feel in consent and can be committed recklessly as a result of that. It is in that locationfore a basic intent crime which core that evidence of no mens rea due to involuntary intoxication will be a defence R v Majewski 1977 AC 443. versed is defined at s 78 of the 2003 Act.s 3 This offence is a kin to the old offence of indecent assault under the 1956 Act, former(a) than the s 3 offence here req uires that D touch V in the set exposit. The old law only required an assault, which of course need not re lean involved actual touching. Under the common law in R v Rolfe 1952 36 Cr App R4 D was guilty of an indecent assault when he walked toward V with his penis exposed. This would not satisfy the s 3 offence now. However, R v H 2005 EWCA Crim 732 shows that only the s comfortableest touch to Vs clothing in a sexual agency will suffice. versed is defined ats 78 of the 2003 Act, and Ds feel in consent must be reasonable.s 4 The actus reus is not complete unless V factually engages in a sexual act at the instigation of D and V factually does not consent. cozy is defined at s 78 and Ds belief, if he is to escape liability, must be a reasonable one that V consents. thither is no requirement for D to be present when V engages in the exertion. create V to masturbate herself or causing V to engage in acts of prostitution are lawsuits that would fit s 4.s 61 Administering a substance can be done in any manner, eg in food or booze, by injection or by centering of inhalation (perhaps on a smothering cloth or in vapour held under the nose whilst V is asleep). D must spread the substance or cause a third party to do so and while a sexual application must be intended it need not be D who it is planned will engage in it with V. V must factually not consent and D must be aware of this a mere belief that V might not consent isinsufficient.s 74 provides that a someone consents if she agrees by choice, and has the emancipation and electrical depicted object to make that choice. The explanation is ground on free agreement.s 75 A conclusive premiss means that the presumption will apply, in this case that V didnot consent, if the relevant act is proven to swallow occurred (the sexual act) and the circumstances described are proven to have occurred (eg D d eceived V as to the dis go under of the sexual act). D will then be presumed to have not had Vs consent and at that place is no opportunity for him to argue that he did have it.The requirements of force and lack of will were replaced by the perception of consent in the mid 19th century. The turning point was the case of R v Camplin,6 where a woman was penetrated aft(prenominal) being make drunk by the accused. Faced with no indication of force against the victim, the House of Lords decided that there could be rape if the penetration took place without the consent and against the will of the victim. In focalisationing on consent rather than force it has been argued that the offence does not capture the real temperament of rape.7 Feminists have articulated several apprehensions active whether the focus on consent sufficiently protects women.8 Firstly, an objectionable second of make the consent of the victim the central question has been that criminal trials tend to focus on t he broadcast and sexual history of the victim rather than on the necessitate of the accused.9 A second criticism is that the e actuallyday use of the term consent does not satiscomponentily distinguish between cases in which the victim submits out of fear and cases in which she is prepared to engage in sexual intercourse.106 R v Camplin (1845) 1 Cox 22. The decision was support in R v Fletcher (1859) 8 Cox 131.7 V Tadros, Rape Without Consent (2006) 26 Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 515, 516. See in alike manner V Tadros, No Consent A Historical Critique of the Actus Reus of Rape (1999) 3 Edinburgh Law Review 317, 330.8For further discussion see P Western, several(prenominal) Common Confusion About Consent in Rape Cases (2004) 2 Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law 333-359.9 Tadros, to a luxuriouslyer place n 10, 326.10 Ibid.Finally, it has been argued that the theory of consent cannot be set(p) reasonably while jurors and judges rely on their predictable views about sexual roles in their assessment of consent such as, put bluntly, yes means no that women fantasize about being raped or that women could drive if they really wanted to.11Voluntary intoxication vs forced intoxicationThere is a well-established link between the use of commonplace intoxicants like intoxicantic suckic drink and sexual assault. Estimates vary between studies, but it is generally accepted that inebriant has been consumed by one or both parties in a high proportion of rape cases. Alcohol has thus been suggested to be both a precipitant of, and an excuse for, sexual aggression by men (Richardson and Campbell, 1982 (Richardson and Hammock, 1991). In addition, alcohol use has been studied as a risk cypher for sexual victimization, since it lowers awareness of risky daubs and impairs the ability to resist assault (Abbey, 1991 Berkowitz, 1992). four almost of the simulations involved alcohol, with the key variable relating to the means of administration to the plaintiff (1) translucent self-administration (2) self-administration under pressure from the defendant (3) surreptitious strengthening of an alcoholic drink by the defendant and (4) surreptitious administration into a non-alcoholic drink by the defendantPresent ScenarioThe existing situation where there is no statutory comment of consent to any sexual act which might otherwise be a crime is remote from perfect, leading to a lack of lucidity for the complainant, the accused and the Jury. The positive impact of a lucid commentary should withal be felt outside the courtroom, preventing at least some acts of sexual violence. It would seem best that an alternative expanded and more comprehensive definition of consent should have as its primary focus the conduct of the accused rather than that of the complainant, as far as possible, with the aim of11 See Victorian Law Reform Commission, Sexual Offences Interim root word (2003) 310.avoiding protracted, hostile and thorough cross-examination of the complainant on matters which are often of tentative bearing to any real issues in the case. Of course, fairness to the accused is a crucial principle. However, no less crucial is the framing of the law to confuse needless suffering of survivors of sexual aggression by grilling, as there can be no doubt that apprehension of such an ordeal operates to augment the pace of erosion.Is the present definition of consent inadequate immediately it is time to endorse a new extended all-inclusive definition of consent which incorporates the benefits and avoids some pitfalls of the definition used in the UK Sexual Offences Act 2003 12. Some profound experts have identified, that the UK definition does not moderate any guidance as to whether the complainant must communicate consent by words or action 13. However, it is apparent from the successive cases that the most noteworthy rational issue has been capacity. The England and Wales legislation does not include any definition of capaci ty itself, and its list of situations where there is presumed to be no consent, at sections 75 and 76 of the SOA 2003, does not declarely include the situation where there is no capacity to consent because of self-induced intoxication of the complainant which falls short of unconscious mindness. It is reasonable to say that the UK administration examined this breach in the law in the light of the decision of the Court of Appeal in R v Bree 2007 EWCA 256, in which the Court interpreted the capacity to consent as something which may fade well before a complainant becomes unconscious, and explained that if, with drink (or for any other reason) the complainant has temporarily lost her capacity to choose whether to have intercourse on the relevant occasion, she is not consenting.However, the Court also made it clear that the complainant may still preserve the capacity to consent (or not) even if she has had quite a lot to drink, which means that fundamentally each case will turn on its own facts. The UK establishment decided not to diverseness the law subsequent to this decision.12 See Section 74 of the UK Sexual Offences Act 2003 ..a person consents if he agrees by choice, and has the freedom and capacity to make that choice.13 For example, see an article by Victor Tadros entitled Rape without Consent, Oxford Journal of Legal Studies,Vol 26, No 3(2006), pp 515-543, at page 521 et seqIt would seem best, given that this is a situation which arises very frequently, and which gives rise to misuse, that an expansive definition of consent should contain stipulation for the situation where the complainants consent is compromised by her voluntary intoxication. After all, the drink driving laws believe that after use of a very modest measure of alcohol, our competence to lock a car carefully is critically affected. Of course, this would mean that the conduct of the complainant would still be under investigation.Some regulation as to what should be included in such an extended definition will be found at Sections 75 of the UK SOA 2003 ( important presumptions about consent) and Section 76 ibidem (conclusive presumptions about consent), which taken together provide a list of situations in which the lack of consent may beunderstood, and except for the two majestic situations contained in Section 76, additionally provide that it is open to the accused to stimulate in ample evidence to show that there is an issue as to whether the complainant consented, in relation to the particular fix of affairs. This list of situations does non cover the situation where the complainants capacity to consent is impaired by self-induced intoxication, but he/she is not asleep or otherwise unconscious 14. stack when allowing sexual body process does not amount to consentAllowing sexual activity does not amount to consent in some circumstances like when she does not protest and/or offer physical resistance to the activity or if the activity takes place while s he is asleep or is unconscious.A comparable condition may come about when she is affected by medicines or alcohol to such an extent that she is in no situation to consent or refuse. It is not pertinent whether or not she took the drug or alcohol voluntarily or involuntarily. Another condition could be when the person is so affected by a mental or physical condition or impairment that she is in no blot to consent or to refuse consent. Similarly, it is not consent to sexual activity if she allows it because she is mistaken about the persons identity or she is mistaken about the nature of the activity.14 Section 75 (2) (d) UK SOA 2003A consent by other person on behalf of the complainant cannot be considered a legitimate consent or if another person in a position of power, trust or authority incites her to engage in that activity. A complainant cannot express her consent by a lack of concurrence to engage in that activity or having first consented, she expresses by words or conduct a lack of agreement to continue to engage in such activity.The Sexual Offences Act 2003 and thereafter Demand for miscellany of LawThe Government has already made a number of varietys to the law on rape and the way the police and Crown Prosecution Service work on these cases. These changes include strengthening the law on rape through the Sexual Offences Act 2003 and developing a network of sexual assault referral centres that provide specialised, dedicated help and support to victims.The pioneer support for a change came from non-government groups and victim and survivor support groups, whilst members of the judiciary and legal profession were less persuaded of the need for change. Moreover, around a third of the respondents who believed that the law should be changed advance a further evidential presumption to cover intoxication by drink and drugs, often citing the recommendation that was made in the report to collection plate Offices review of the law on sexual offences, Set ting the Boundaries, which projected an evidential presumption that read Where a person asleep, unconscious or too affected by alcohol or drugs to give free agreement. A number of respondents, particularly victim and survivor organizations, further argued that the law as it presently existed was essentially paradoxical on the subject of intoxication. The respondents argued that where intoxication bring down short of unconsciousness and was therefore covered by section 75(d) of the Sexual Offences Act 2003, it was both presumed and not presumed to invalidate consent depending on whether the lift up substance was administered covertly or consumed voluntarily.It was suggested that the distinction between those intoxicated having had their drink spiked (or been drugged in some other way) and those intoxicated ostensibly of their own wish was not as clear cut as the law allowed for. There were cases in which offenders knowingly facilitated the intoxication of susceptible victims in or der to commit an offence. One example was where an uncle facilitated the intoxication of a younger niece in order to commit a sexual offence. Even in situations where the offender had not been responsible for inducing intoxication there was a risk that some men can seek to take profit of the fact that women are drunk and therefore have less capacity to defend against demands or intimidation. Therefore, it was argued that the law should be changed so that it made no distinction between voluntary and involuntary intoxication if the final consequence was a lack of capacity to consent.The advanceings in the case of R v Dougal 15 were widely cited as an example of the difficulties caused in applying the reliable law to cases involving voluntary intoxication and as an argument in privilege of adopting a change in the legislation. This case collapsed when the prosecuting counsel took the view that the quest were unable to prove that the complainant, because of her level of intoxicati on, had not given consent and advised the judge that he did not propose to proceed further. The judge agree and directed the control panel to enter a not guilty verdict. It was argued, that the case should have been proceeded with and the issue of the victims capacity to consent put to the jury. It was argued that a change in the law would allow a quasi(prenominal) case to proceed in the future and would provide assistance to the jury in considering the issue of consent.While the relationship between capacity and intoxication was the most outstanding issue, responses from police and prosecution representatives and childrens organizations identified other factors that should be taken into count on when considering an individuals capacity to consent. These included mental health, domestic violence and the exploitation of victims made vulnerable by their circumstances, for example sex workers. There were differing opinions on whether a change in the law would be necessary to allow the effects of such factors to be considered in relation to consent. Organizations with a specific hobby in children supported a change to the law which would take circular of the particular vulnerability of children and the circumstances in which they can be ill-used in order to commit sex offences. It was noted that alcohol can often be used by offenders to make it easier to commit an offence.15 R v Dougal (2005) Swansea Crown Court (unreported)However, it was also pointed out that alcohol is frequently consumed voluntarily by teenagers before engaging in accordant sex and that it was important that intoxication should not be the only factor taken into account when considering the capacity of those under 16 to consent as this could lead to inappropriate prosecutions. The opinion that the law did not need to be changed was most commonly held by members of the legal profession, the judiciary and law enforcement agencies. Some argued that the law had only been in force for a re latively skeleton period and that any meaningful assessment of the Acts provisions was therefore premature. constant change, others argued, rather than bringing clarity, would only serve to cause further confusion. Opponents of change argued, it would be wrong to seek to change the legislation simply because of the offspring of the case of R v Dougal. They took the view that the Sexual Offences Act 2003 had provided a welcome modification to the law on consent, which had improved the law because juries were now required to consider what steps the accused had taken to establish whether or not the complainant genuinely consented. Although there may now be a focus less on whether or not consent was given but rather on whether the complainant had the capacity to give consent, this did not challenge the adequacy of the law as it was currently framed. Those who did not consider that the law needed changing argued that it was already the case that a jury could ask themselves whether the complainant was in a fit state to give free and informed consent, especially if they had been drinking heavily. It was suggested by juridical respondents that R v Dougal had been an exceptional case and that in most similar cases juries have been properly directed that lack of capacity includes incapacity through excessive consumption of alcohol or drugs.There was concern for the broader implications of a change in the law. It was suggested that establishing a link between intoxication and a capacity to consent could result in, and concord to some should entitle, a defendant to argue that he was too drunk to assess whether consent had been given. It was also argued that the effect of intoxication on a persons ability to make decisions could not be used as a defence to other offences, for example assault, and so should not be relevant to the capacity to consent in rape cases. However, it was also argued that these two situations were not analogous because victims were not on trial .Section 74 of the Sexual Offences Act 2003 refers to freedom and capacity and argued that there was a distinction between these two concepts. It was argued that capacity to consent was relevant to children and individuals with mental disorders impeding choice but not to adults who had become intoxicated. It was suggested that liken adults with children in this way was a step backwards.Should there be a statutory definition of capacityThis change in law by way of inclusion of a definition of capacity would bring a clarity to proceedings and ensure that juries would consider the complainants circumstances, including any effect that alcohol or other substances may have had on their ability and freedom to choose. Advocates of this definition consider that it is clear and easy to understand and would cover the circumstances where a complainant was so drunk but not unconscious as to not know what was happening or unable to say no.A number of those who supported a further evidential pr esumption based on alcohol consumption suggested that this might be the statutory definition of capacity that was needed. Most commonly, the evidential presumption that was proposed was the one that appeared in Setting the Boundaries. Such an evidential presumption, it was argued would allow the case to be put to the jury, even where the complainant could not remember whether she consented or not. It would, of course, carry on open to the defendant to say that the complainant did indeed consent and for the jury to believe him or, at least, give him the benefit of the doubt.Philosophical issuesDoes a person who is voluntarily drunk remain capable of giving valid consent to sex? The Court of Appeal in Bree held that a drunken consent is still (valid) consent, though it further recognises that the capacity to consent may fade well before a complainant becomes unconscious. This decision is a move in the right direction, yet this article argues that it has not gone far enough, and that s. 74 of the Sexual Offences Act 2003 which governs these scenarios allows-and even requires-a more drastic comment a drunken consent is not consent when the person is very drunk. Based on a distinction between factual and legal consent, the article starts by setting up the legal framework as set out in s. 74, and developed in Bree and H. It then goes on to criticise the current case law and its interpretation of s. 74 for not being restrictive enough, by examining two possible theoretical rationales, mentioned in the judgments. The first, which is based on an analogy with the law relating to intoxicated offenders, is criticised on the causa of differences between consent and intent. The second, which is based on the general argument that this position recognises the positive aspect of sexual autonomy, is criticised for its failure to distinguish between claims of normative facts and claims of public policy and for giving too much weight to the latter(prenominal) considerations. From the discussion an alternative, more restrictive position, emerges in line with s. 74 of the 2003 Act, according to which a drunken consent is not consent. This position can be adopted by judges, through the provision of better guidance to juries, but failing that a reform of the law might be needed.

My personal philosopgy of education

My personal philosopgy of preceptA teachers school of thought of education is a decisive building block in her or his move toward children future learnedness. in that respectfore, there are cardinal key educational philosophies used in my personal education philosophy. These include Essentialism, Perennialism, Progressivism, Existentialism, and Behaviorism (Sadker Sadker, 1994, p.382). to each wiz carries both optimistic and pessimistic beliefs, in my opinion. Therefore, I prefer a diverse opinion in my pursuit of an educational philosophy. My ideal educator is one, who inspires experience in addition to providing the required block of instruction. A trusted amount of imagination, passion, and enthusiasm is necessary of the teacher. Unquestionably, this is a high demanding goal for anyone in a profession like this on a daily basis. However, considering our children future is on the line its a small price to pay.The three major philosophies that go with my personal philo sophy of education are Essentialism, Progressivism and Behaviorism. The first, American Essentialism, is grounded in a traditional American philosophy that accepts the political, social, economic composition of American Essentialists accept as true that teachers should encourage such customary American qualities as respect for authority, determination, commitment to duty, kindness for others, and common sense (Sadker Sadker, 1994, p.369). In the schoolroom, predictable disciplines are taught such as history, math, natural science, literature, and foreign language, which number the basis of the curriculum. The teacher serves as a thinker and key occasion model for the students. The academic agenda is good for both slow and nimble learners. Also, it is hoped that after the student leaves school, they will acquire the basic fundamental skills and association to become productive members of gild. However, the inflexibility of this philosophy, by itself, does not always explosion the concern of all students and that is where the principles of the progressive philosophy come into the picture.Progressivism retrieves is strongly grounded in individualism. My opinion is that hands-on experience is required to effectively learn some a(prenominal) skills. For example few people would be able to learn to beat back a car by righteous reading about it or hearing a lecture on how to drive. The practice of skills is critical in the learning outgrowth for many learners. Their cognition increases when they are engaged in activities that fall in implication on them (Gutek, 2009, p.93). In a progressivist classroom, teachers plan lesson plans that cannonball along interest and interaction among the students which provide for a higher level of knowledge for the group. The students are strongly encouraged by the teachers to solve problems by interacting in small groups surroundings. This develops social skills such as teamwork and open-mindedness for dissimilar poin ts of view. Additionally, students solve problems in the classroom similar to those they will meet in e rattlingday life. This provides students with the skills indispensable to become an effective problem solver in preparation for swelled lives. A critical component of successful procreation is the effective take away of knowledge, skill, and abilities from the learning purlieu to the actual job. If students only perform the skills in the classroom and do not utilize it on the job then the training was wasted (Buhler, 2002, p.146). Progressivists believe that this advent to education is an everlasting educational process of enduring expansion (Sadker Sadker, 1994, p. 372).With the set of courses addressed, I believe it is essential to berate about classroom management. This is where the philosophy of Behaviorism comes into place. Skinner, the father of Behaviorism, believed that proper pauperism does not come from within, rather it is the reinforcing opportunities of the e nvironment that serve to strengthen or reduce behaviors (Cooney, Cross, Trunk, 1993, p. 220). Basically, it depends on the skills of the teacher to make a classroom environment where the challenge of learning creates a suitable conduct in the classroom. By positive reinforcement, students will conduct themselves well toward each another, sit piano and listen, and interact when required. Discipline is just as important as learning the course work (Sadker Sadker, 1994, p. 212).However, in the current American society, there is one more viewpoint to be considered when you designing a personal philosophy of education. One that goes outside the established role of the classroom discussed beforehand. The important grammatical constituent is the elimination of parents from the residence. Many households are run by a fillet of sole parent or both parents are needed to supply incomes just to sustain the necessities. This situation in my opinion is contributing too many of the problems fa cing educating our children. Many students are not arriving at school spend a penny to learn the basics, of reading, writing, and arithmetic. The goals of economic viability, good citizenship, and the other social virtues are withal harder to deliver the goods when these children have not had the opportunity to learn the basic mores of our society (M fine artin, 1995, p.356). Consequently, we as educators are dealing with this problem and still trying to civilise the students. Dewey could not have said it better The sole goal of education is growth (as cited in Gutek, 2009, p.92). Students grow to be the best that they can be. There is no easy firmness to this problem and teachers cannot solve this problem along. The solution to this problem must start with the parents excepting responsibility for the upbringing of their childrenBasically, I believe the views that I have selected from the different philosophies of education correspond to what would be my approach to teaching. I n addition, this different approach allows for you to have common characteristics over the half-dozen branches of philosophy. Existentialism, moral principles, metaphysics, and reason would be covered just by the very nature of its philosophy. Teachers serve as role models for the learners to instill American qualities and when combine with the science, metaphysics and common sense everything fall into place. Behaviorism is also covered infra the moral code, as it develops the guiding principle for appropriate behavior of students. quartet of the Progressivism branches covered includes axiology, epistemology, aesthetics, and common sense. Epistemology is an examination into how we are to be taught. The function of progressivism is to look for ways to accommodate the learners individuality for that reason, this will comprise learning styles and educational values. Progressivisms last branch is common sense and it is what the students, will remember most because, what is learned in the school has meaning to the real world. History is an art as well as a science so there is many opportunity to discover the reasoning by both inducive and deductive methods behind the actions of our forefathers and how it affects us now.Accordingly, my personal philosophy is build from those five pillows. I do believe that to be an educator, the individual must have the patience, the love, the desire, and stubbornness to face all the challenges that I previously mentioned and to make a difference in our children, our future. All children I believe can achieve their full educational potential under the right circumstances. The dream of my prognosis classroom reflects all of these points. It is my expectation that, as I teach the knowledge required, I will also manage to motivate and inspire my students to pretend for the sky.

Analysing Mearsheimers Critique Of Structural Realism Politics Essay

Analysing Mearsheimers Critique Of structural Realism Politics EssayAs discussed in the last branch the Waltzian model of realness has had profound effects on worldwide trans feat possibility. However, even fellow realists have found tasks and inconsistencies with Waltzs structural realism. John Mearsheimer is iodin of these theorists. He uses and adapts on Waltzs theory to paint a much much pessimistic and altogether darker picture of International relations theory. He expands on Waltzs idea of anatomical structure causing behaviour, but he rejects the status quo preconceived idea in Waltzs theory. (Mearsheimer, 2001, p. 20) Instead he favours a more than aggressive establish of state inter serve forced by lawless systems which make pass states to terminalure hegemonies.Mearsheimer still refers to himself as a structural realist because his arrogances argon ground on states acting in an anarchic system. musical composition he uses Waltzs theory of structure he does have serious reservations about defensive realisms divinatory public utilityRealist theories ar invariably simple or parsimonious, which has an upside and a downside. any simple theory, as we each know, plunder only condone so much about the world, because by definition it omits a variety of f thespians from its informative apparatus, and some(a)times those factors matter a lot. (Mearsheimer, Booth, Wheeler, Williams, 2006, p. 107)He goes further to explain wherefore this is a line for Waltzs theoryMy main problem with defensive realism is that it does non do a good job of explaining how the world very spirts. It may be a good normative theory but it is not a good descriptive theory. (ibid., p. 111)Mearsheimer has attempted to rectify this problem by creating a new theory, or more accurately, amending the pre-existing theory. To do this he state the five key assumptions realism is ground upon. The volume of this section go away attempt to critique his amendmen ts to Waltzs structural realism and go away attempt to show how they are also logi watchwordy dubious. As express in the previous section Waltz erred on the side of nearness rather than providing a descriptive theory. (Srensen, 2011, p. 112)Mearsheimer starts his book with his five key assumptions, which he restates throughout his work. While he never explicitly ranks them, it is fair to say, based on his theory, that the following order is most alpha to least important.States are the key actors in World Politics and they operate in an anarchic system. expectant powers invariably have some offensive military capability.States can never be certain whether an different(prenominal) states have hostile intentions towards them.Great powers place a high premium on survival.States are coherent actors who are reasonably effective at designing strategies that maximise their chances of survival. (ibid., pp. 362-363)Mearsheimer seems to join on an addendum to his own work, that maximi sing chances for survival necessarily dictates that states are power-hungry. That they forget attempt to gain power and try to attain regional and maybe spheric hegemony. He creates a set of mutually exclusive conditions tries to discharge them operate in concert to explain state behaviour. He claims in his book The Tragedy of Great Power Politics that the structure of the international system, not the particular characteristics of individual powers, causes them to think and act offensively and to sample hegemony. (ibid., p. 53) He argues that Waltzs self-help behaviour, created by security dilemmas within the international system, was not interpreted far enough. In revolt the desire to survive encourages states to behave aggressively. (ibid., p. 54) He larns that such behaviour does not accurately explain states primary motif and that when given the opportunity that states exit act to create superiority or hegemony. He makes very little effort to explain why an anarchic system forces these actions. He assumes that through a series of, arguably flawed, face studies that his reader will accept his assumption as an epistemological fact. This is unreasonable when his first assumption of world politics tells that states act in anarchy. Mearsheimer explains that anarchy means that states have no higher(prenominal) authority above them. (2005, p. 2005) Hegemony is delineate by Mearsheimer as a state that is so powerful that it dominates all the other states in the system. (2001, p. 40) This would then prioritize the hegemon and it would act as a higher authority in the international system. This could conceivably create a class-conscious international system.Mearsheimer rejects this, and contradicts the logical extension of his theoretical assumptions in the process, when describing the array international system we are not moving towards a hierarchic international system, which would effectively mean some kind of world government. In fact, anarchy looks like it will be with us for a dour time. (2001, p. 365) Mearsheimer seems to be suggesting throughout his work that the hegemon would not be an authority above the states but more of a primus inter pares. His reasoning for hegemonic growth is based in the security dilemma international relations presents. The ultimate intent being survival states will attempt to gain enough sexual intercourse power that they cannot be threatened. (Wang, 2004, pp. 176-177) Nevertheless, there is still no compelling leaning given to show how anarchy relates to hegemonic stability theory.This apparent contradiction amid theoretical assumptions warrants further consideration. To provide a critique that is both compendious and effective it is reasonable to use a few fundamental short strokes in the following examination. The first of these is that this critique will assume that Mearsheimers underlying theoretical assumptions are correct (within the reaches of his own theory). In particular h is first assumption that the structure of world politics is anarchical and the underlying premise of his work that states seek power to enhance security and that hegemony is the ultimate goal are the two theoretical assumptions that will be focused on. The second is to assume that he is correct when he labels America as a regional hegemony. It is important to note that neither of these conditions are as clear cut or simple as Mearsheimer would seem to believe, indeed the first will be repugnd throughout this section. The critique will be examining the relationship amidst the atomic number 63an Union and America. It will question whether the primus inter pares relationship describe above is real or if hegemonic stability theory is anathema to anarchic structures.To begin it should be noted that it is very hard to make the pillow slip that Europe is one homogenous entity subject to the same rules and responsibilities of a state. This line of credit is largely born as a hypothetica l state of affairs. The following situation is being used to demonstrate a logical inconsistency and contradiction within Mearsheimers theory. I intend to question Mearsheimers conception of state actions and anarchy. Without considering other influencing factors (given that almost all realists assume that states are the main actors) the main actor that will be discussed is Germany. The situation will use Mearsheimers own production lines regarding capability hegemonies and the actions existing hegemonies take to prevent their rise. Mearsheimer argues that economical and political interdependence would not be enough to secure the rise of Germany within Europe. (1994-1995, pp. 6-8) America is the decision making factor when it comes to preventing war in Europe. (ibid. 6-8, 47-49) This is the action of a hegemonic entity he argues.States that achieve regional Hegemony seek to prevent great powers in other regions from duplicating their feat. consequently the United States, for example, played a key procedure in preventing royal Japan, Wilhelmine Germany, Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union from gaining regional supremacy. (Mearsheimer J. J., 2001, p. 41)He goes on to explain how this is relevant to the exampleIf a potential difference hegemon emerges among them, the other great powers in that region might be able to contain it by themselves, allowing the impertinent hegemon to remain safely on the sidelines. Of course, if the local great powers were unable to do the job, the distant hegemon would take the appropriate measures. (ibid., p. 41)Mearsheimer states that this form of state (it is worth magical spell to orientate out that a hegemon is substantially different to a state this crest will be expanded upon later in the section) behaviour is more about rapprochement power and preventing a potential threat meet an actual threat. This is broadly in keeping with realist assumptions of state action. However, if the term balancing is replaced with pol icing, which is equally applicable, the action becomes problematic if the system is meant to remain anarchic. He does in fact explicitly state that the peace in Europe today, is the result of the American pacifier, not the establishment of a security community. (Mearsheimer, Booth, Wheeler, Williams, 2006, p. 116) This is not the role of a hegemonic balancing act. It is the imposition of order by the hegemon on other states. There is an argument to be made that it does balance a sensed future threat, that argument is, however, unconvincing. The security dilemma does not stipulate that a state respond to an implied threat, the only response warranted is when there is a de facto threat. The head of economic integration and interdependence in Europe necessarily precludes Germany from pursuance power as it would lead to negative gain. Mearsheimer oddly goes further than this when discussing this problem I think you have peace in western Europe because there is a higher authority tha t maintains order. There is a 911 to call the United States. (2006, p. 121) The contradiction becomes apparent anarchy is the absence of a higher authority, hegemony is the imposition of it. There is little doubt that Mearsheimer would disagree with this interpretation of hegemony as he would regard America acting as a global policeman (absent the need to balance an aggressively growing potential hegemon) as ill advised and contrary to the underlying assumptions of his theory. (2001, pp. 50-51)The reason this example is so confused is also born out of a contradiction unverbalised within Mearsheimers work. Germany could never be a potential hegemon, irrespective of historical imperatives. The reasons for this are apparent in Mearsheimers own work the sage actor assumption would seem to stop a state from taking an action where the costs outweigh the potential gains. (ibid. p.37) This means, largely due to the level of economic interdependence that Germany is not likely to become an expansionistic power. The contradiction that comes out is that while the buffer that America provides (which Mearsheimer disagrees with profoundly (2006, pp. 118-121)) is not a response to a potential hegemon it is the imposition of hegemonic strength. However, this contradiction does not detract from the problem of hegemonic office necessarily translating the anarchic system into a hierarchical one.Quite apart from that particular theoretical inconsistency, there is a problem with Mearsheimers power lecherousness vs. balancing theory. He has three conditions that control this form of state actionGreat powers try to expand only when opportunities arise.They do so when the benefits understandably exceed the risks and costs.They will desist from expansion when blocked and wait for a more propitious moment (Snyder, 2002, p. 153)The causal root of this competitive balancing is deeply rooted in the structure (or so we are lead to believe) anarchy forces each state to assume a security dilemma. This is argument is never truly pursued in his work, it is assumed that the self-help nature that hatful Waltz puts forward and this security problem is the driver for the state action. When examined this news report of state action is completely unsatisfactory. Richard Rosecrance explains the problem of this form of state action.At the turn of the century, the United States passed Great Britain without war. In economic terms, Japan locomote ahead of the Soviet Union in 1983 but neither unsophisticated was tempted to fight over the transition. The German rise vis-a-vis Britain at the end of the nineteenth century would not have been a problem had it not been that the Kaiser decided to build a great navy and challenge Britain both at home and overoceans. If Germany had remained a land power as it opted to do under Bismarck it would not have caused British opposition or provoked an arms race. (2006, p. 32)Britain, from the mid 19th century to the start of the runner W orld War was the regional hegemony. It had almost complete control of the sea and a huge empire to support itself. Both America and Wilhelmine Germany were potential regional hegemonies. Britain did not in any way try to challenge their growth. Similarly the Soviet Union did not balance the growing hegemony of Japan. This seems to thin out both the rational actor model and hegemonic stability theory, both of which are key parts Mearsheimers theory.Mearsheimers work on offensive realism is pierce with mutual exclusions and contradictions. It does still remain an interesting theory it attempts to add broader explanatory assumptions to a set of normative principles. The problem is that the theory attempts to do too much. It tries to explain state motivations and actions as well as the outcomes produced. It, however, uses very delineate ontological assumptions to provide explanation. We are presented with the idea that states have a will to power driven by a security threat which is in turn driven by the anarchical system. Mearsheimer does not explain coherently why an anarchic structure forces states into such an aggressive competition, he serves it up as an epistemological fact and an eternal truth. With these problems in mind, it is also important to remember that Mearsheimer theory does cover some aspects of international relations. The addition of the rational actor model is likely a positive change in realist perspective, with the caveat that states can act irrationally at times.This section has provided a critique of Mearsheimers work using his own theories and examples. I have tried and true to remain as constant to Mearsheimers own theoretical assumptions as possible. While by no means conclusive it does serve to illustrate some severe problems with the theory that need to be rectified. The validity of his core assumptions are not what I have questioned, it is the underlying addition to these assumptions of hegemonic stability theory that I strongly disagree with. While Mearsheimer does give empirical try out to support his claims, the validity of this evidence is up for debate.

J.B.Priestley’s play, An Inspector Calls :: English Literature

English Coursework - An Inspector Calls.After the inspector leaves, The Birlings wrangle the nights events.They go into a stage of blaming each-other for Eva Smiths death,pushing the guilt onto one-another. Mr. Birling still does not havehis priorities right away as the first thing that initially springs tohis mind is that fact that the families record pass on go d ingest thedrain if any of the information they gave extinct will be found out by thepublic. He claimed that at that placell be a public scandal. He was certainthat he was going to get a knighthood in the next honours list. Inresponse to his begetters attitude, Eric is unconcerned approximately what thepublic will think, scarce more concerned about what went on that night.Mister and Mrs Birling wear offt want to admit to themselves that theyplayed any part in the girls death, and keep twisting the subject topoint the convict back to Eric. Eric informed his parents Well, I dontblame you. precisely dont forget Im ashamed of you as well- yes both ofyou. He is openly admitting that he has done wrong, but thinks thatit is below the belt to take all the responsibility for the death of the girl.Here again, his Father was focal point the blame away from them by sayingTheres every excuse for what both your mother and I did- it turnedout unfortunately, thats all. This is a gutless attitude for them tohave considering how they were feeling before the inspector leave them.Sheila was quiet up until this.Sheila is on Erics side and openly admitted that she behaved badly,but she then pointed out that they were pretending that nothing oftenhas happened. It is here when Eric reminds his father of what he hadtold himself and Gerald earlier that evening just before the inspectorhad arrived- A man has to make his own way, look by and by himself andmind his own business, and that we werent to take any notice of thesecranks who tells us that everybody has to look after everybody else,as if we were all mix ed up together. Thinking about this, theBirlings begin to have doubts as to whether the inspector is in fact,an inspector. It seemed too ironic that an inspector would walk in atthat moment. Sheila draw it as being very queer. She thenquoted it doesnt much matter now how ever mister Birling disagreesas it matters a devil of a lot to him. He is relieved that there isstill rely that his reputation is not at stake, and let off the hook

Truth of a Free Spirit Essay -- Authors

Many writers apply experiences and thoughts into their work and express them in such a modal value the reader can relate. Critics would agree that Edgar Allan Poe left a unique mark as a short story writer. infor human beingst Ray Bradbury was quoted saying, It doesnt matter what you do, so long as you change something from the way it was before you touched it into something thats like you after you take your hands absent (Bradbury). Fiction writing was simple until Poe begins to put his twist around the world. During the marvelous times that Edgar Allan Poe experienced as a young man would in the end alter the history of short stories, he was unique and an extraordinary writer therefore exemplifying the mark that he leave upon society. In Poes early life, he goes through a devastating and tragic shell as his mother dies and his biological father abandons him at the era of 2 leaving him as an orphan. Writer W.D. Johnson says, Increased susceptibility to depression and angui sh is another result of the heightened stress levels associated with being an orphan. Typically, the younger the age of a child when orphaned and the longer he remains with out(a) a home, the more drastic the impact that his experiences as an orphan will have on his development (Johnson). Poes adolescence seemed to be on a path bound for self-destruction following the Allans informal adoption of him at the age of two. Francis and John Allan, his foster parents, forced him to move away from his siblings in capital of Massachusetts to their home in Richmond, Virginia. From a young age, Poe lacked the stability of a productive environment for a boy to grow and mature into a man acceptable to societys standards. Poe and his foster family moved to England in out of bounds of business adventures fo... ...itical Essay). symploke. University of Nebraska Press. 1999. HighBeam Research. 6 May. 2012 http//www.highbeam.com.Page, K.. How Maslow. N.p., 2010. Web. 4 May 2012. .Schogol, Jeff. Why was Edgar Allan Poe kicked out of West Point? . Stars and Stripes. Stars and Stripes, Febr. Web. 4 May 2012. http//www.stripes.com/blogs/the-rumor-doctor/the-rumor-doctor-1.104348/why-was-edgar-allan-poe-kicked-out-of-west-point-1.133805.Year Without a Summer. Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 05 June 2012. Web. 07 May 2012. http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Year_Without_a_Summer.Soon, Willie, and Steven Yaskell. Year Without a Summer. Year Without a Summer. World scientific Publishing Company, July 2001. Web. 07 May 2012.

No Child Left Behind is Beneficial Essay -- Education, Politics

Political Influences that Helped to Determine the NCLB playactThe guinea pigation in 1983 of A Nation at Risk Report, flung bringing up into the political think as the Reagan Administration reasoned the state of procreation to be a raceal security risk (Reutzel, 2009). This report caused the public and politicians to start to analyse bringing up and the state of reading readiness of the kids of the United States (Reutzel, 2009).By 1994, electric chair preeminence Clinton started the course of rallying the National Governors multitude with statute law entitled Goals 2000 Educate America Act. This act was the start of countrywide examen in reading and math to demonstrate responsibility for public education. At the same time, the National Assessment of preparation Progress (NAEP) was institutionalise kayoed by a congressionally funded test service, showing that reading gain amid the earths fourth graders was going down (Reutzel, 2009). And consequently began the declension of literacy education with protrude political influenceThe next ten years would control prosperity of data funded both publicly and privately, showing the collapse of a nation and the social difficulties that would result if education was left to educators and the educational system. national championship would be given to schools of poverty or underachieving schools. Research standards comparable to those use by other professional fields like applied science and medication would be used to decide on the mendation of literacy education (Reutzel, 2009).Literacy reform now became the rallying call of the U.S. Congress. The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1964 was revised in the No pip-squeak Left basis lawmaking of 2002. This legislation relied heavily on the scientific reading query th... ...ely discriminate and racial minorities. There is experimental evidence that shows that these philosophies are and so efficient (Ravitch and Chubb, 2009). There appears to be goodness and bad things in regards to No Child Left Behind. There is a quantity of evidence that the elemental archetype is working but at that place are many that interrogative the slaying of the policy in achieving maximum effectiveness. The Obama administration has put out a plan that will hopefully close some of the gaps that soon embody in the implementation of this policy. What the program is trying to achieve is a good thing, there just needs to be some tweaking through with(p) in order to ensure successes in the end. Children are not inescapably study what they need to but measuring their learning acts solely by testing are not the most effective measure of accomplishment that there is. No Child Left Behind is Beneficial bear witness -- Education, PoliticsPolitical Influences that Helped to Determine the NCLB ActThe publication in 1983 of A Nation at Risk Report, flung education into the political ring as the Reagan Administr ation reasoned the state of education to be a national security risk (Reutzel, 2009). This report caused the public and politicians to start to examine education and the state of reading readiness of the kids of the United States (Reutzel, 2009).By 1994, President Bill Clinton started the course of rallying the National Governors Convention with legislation entitled Goals 2000 Educate America Act. This act was the start of countrywide testing in reading and math to demonstrate responsibility for public education. At the same time, the National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP) was put out by a congressionally funded testing service, showing that reading scores amid the nations fourth graders was going down (Reutzel, 2009). And consequently began the downfall of literacy education without political influenceThe next ten years would see prosperity of data funded both publicly and privately, showing the collapse of a nation and the social difficulties that would result if educ ation was left to educators and the educational system. Federal funding would be given to schools of poverty or underachieving schools. Research standards comparable to those utilized by other professional fields like engineering and medicine would be used to decide on the reformation of literacy education (Reutzel, 2009).Literacy reform now became the rallying call of the U.S. Congress. The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1964 was revised in the No Child Left Behind legislation of 2002. This legislation relied heavily on the scientific reading research th... ...ely disadvantaged and racial minorities. There is experimental evidence that shows that these philosophies are indeed effective (Ravitch and Chubb, 2009).There appears to be good and bad things in regards to No Child Left Behind. There is a quantity of evidence that the basic concept is working but there are many that question the implementation of the policy in achieving maximum effectiveness. The Obama adm inistration has put out a plan that will hopefully close some of the gaps that currently exist in the implementation of this policy. What the program is trying to achieve is a good thing, there just needs to be some tweaking done in order to ensure successes in the end. Children are not necessarily learning what they need to but measuring their learning accomplishments solely by testing are not the most effective measure of accomplishment that there is.